Mario Luis Small's "Case Selection in Field Research" examines the challenges faced by qualitative researchers, particularly ethnographers studying urban poverty, immigration, and social inequality, in a research landscape dominated by quantitative methodologies. The article critiques the common practice of imitating quantitative methods to enhance the generalizability of case studies, arguing that such attempts often superficially adopt the language without the underlying logic. Small employs Richard Feynman's concept of "cargo cult science" to illustrate this ineffectual imitation. Instead of striving for statistical representativeness in small-n studies, the author advocates for alternative approaches grounded in case study logic and logical inference, such as extending the extended case method and sequential interviewing. Ultimately, the article calls for a clearer understanding of the distinct epistemological contributions of qualitative research and the development of methods suited to generating logically sound hypotheses and identifying ontological realities.

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This article details a three-year ethnographic study employing grounded theory to investigate the overrepresentation of minority students in special education. The authors address methodological considerations in qualitative research and present a visual model illustrating their analytic process. Their research in an urban school district explored the decision-making processes contributing to this disproportionality. The findings suggest that a complex interplay of factors, including assumptions about families, perceived student deficits, administrative policies, and external pressures, contribute to the issue. The authors argue for the value of qualitative methods in understanding such intricate social phenomena, emphasizing that no single factor adequately explains overrepresentation. They also reflect on the challenges and limitations of applying grounded theory in educational research, advocating for methodological transparency and dialogue.

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Warren, M. R., Park, S. O., & Tieken, M. C. (2016). The Formation of Community-Engaged Scholars: A Collaborative Approach to Doctoral Training in Education Research. Harvard Educational Review, 86(2), 233–260. https://doi.org/10.17763/0017-8055.86.2.233

This paper examines the development of community-engaged scholars (CES) in doctoral programs, focusing on collaborative education research. It highlights the importance of fostering learning communities and creating opportunities for students to share stories and build relationships. The article investigates the skills, dispositions, and commitments that characterize community-engaged scholarship through a self-study of a research project at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. It examines the processes through which doctoral students acquire necessary skills and how they can contribute to ongoing practices of CES. The research emphasizes the importance of addressing power dynamics and promoting equity in community partnerships to create a more collaborative and sustainable approach to scholarship. Ultimately, it argues for a new generation of education researchers committed to working with communities and transforming schools.

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Desmond, M. (2014). Relational ethnography. Theory and Society, 43(5), 547–579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-014-9232-5

Matthew Desmond's "Relational Ethnography" argues for a shift in ethnographic research from studying bounded groups and places to examining relationships and processes. The author posits that traditional approaches often reinforce static and isolated views of social reality. Desmond advocates for "relational ethnography," focusing on fields, boundaries, processes, and cultural conflicts rather than fixed entities. He suggests that by prioritizing connections and interactions, researchers can generate richer explanations of social phenomena. The article outlines three distinct approaches for carrying out relational ethnography and also acknowledges the challenges and tradeoffs inherent in this methodology, including gaining entrée, achieving depth, identifying boundaries, writing relationally, and ensuring generalizability. Desmond calls for a more collaborative approach to ethnography, with researchers building upon each other's work to analyze sprawling networks of relations. He concludes that a relational perspective can help ethnographers develop arguments that better reflect the complex, interconnected nature of the social world.

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This text explores the ongoing debate surrounding the evaluation of qualitative research in the social sciences. It highlights a historical divide between qualitative and quantitative researchers, noting a shift towards greater acceptance and influence of qualitative work. Despite this progress, disagreements persist regarding the criteria for assessing the quality and scientific validity of qualitative studies. The text discusses past attempts to establish unified standards, such as those by King, Keohane, and Verba, and the National Science Foundation, while still pointing out that those efforts have been met with controversy. It emphasizes the unique challenges in evaluating qualitative data due to the researcher's direct involvement in data production. The text proposes a focus on the execution of data collection, particularly in in-depth interviews and participant observation, suggesting "exposure" as a precondition, with cognitive empathy, heterogeneity, palpability, follow-up, and self-awareness as indicators of quality.

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The International Journal of Education & the Arts article "Portraiture as Pedagogy" explores the use of portraiture as a qualitative research methodology, particularly within the context of arts education. The authors, a research team of graduate students and a faculty member, share their experiences using portraiture in an urban arts high school project. They emphasize the pedagogical benefits of this approach, highlighting how it allows researchers to negotiate boundaries, build relationships, and confront issues of representation through firsthand experience. The article presents individual "studies" that illustrate methodological challenges encountered during the research process, such as building trust, addressing race, and navigating researcher positionality. The authors argue that portraiture's strength lies in its capacity to generate new questions and promote reflexivity, rather than providing definitive answers.

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This guide underscores the importance of cognitive empathy in qualitative research, distinguishing it from sympathy. It emphasizes that a researcher's ability to understand the perceptions, meanings, and motivations of those studied from their own perspectives is crucial. The document uses examples of interview and observational data to illustrate how researchers can effectively demonstrate cognitive empathy in their work, focusing on techniques like asking clarifying questions and providing detailed descriptions. It argues that conveying this understanding in research reports requires ample space to showcase evidence of probing and careful observation. The guide offers examples, such as Watkins-Hayes's study on women living with HIV and Deener's work on ethnic conflict, to illustrate how strong qualitative research can reflect a high level of cognitive empathy, enabling readers to understand participants as the participants understand themselves.

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This module provides an overview of Item Response Theory (IRT) models, specifically comparing the 1-, 2-, and 3-parameter logistic models. It details the mathematical formulas for each model and illustrates the impact of varying item parameters like difficulty, discrimination, and the pseudo-guessing parameter. A key focus is on how these parameters influence item characteristic curves and how they relate to examinee ability. Furthermore, the text addresses parameter estimation procedures using programs like LOGIST and BILOG and discusses methods for evaluating how well these models fit observed data. The module also acknowledges the assumptions underlying IRT models, such as unidimensionality, and provides annotated references for further study. Finally, teaching aids designed to complement this module, including data sets and parameter values, are available from the NCME.

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Shavelson, R. J., & Webb, N. M. (1991).Generalizability Theory: A Primer. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/harvard-ebooks/detail.action?docID=6636862

Generalizability theory utilizes ANOVA to dissect the variability within social science measurements, similar to how researchers assess the impact of independent variables. This approach partitions a person's score into effects for the universe score, error sources (facets), and their combinations. The goal is to identify and quantify the impact of various error sources on measurements. A person's observed score is seen as a composite of the grand mean, person effect, item effect, and residual error, each having a corresponding variance component. Venn diagrams visually represent these variance components, illustrating how total variance is decomposed into constituent parts. This partitioning helps pinpoint major sources of measurement error and estimate total error magnitude.

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Shavelson, R. J., & Webb, N. M. (1991).Generalizability Theory: A Primer. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/harvard-ebooks/detail.action?docID=6636862

Generalizability (G) theory is a statistical framework used to evaluate the dependability of behavioural measurements by examining multiple sources of error simultaneously. Unlike classical test theory, G theory allows for the separate estimation of various error sources, such as differences across test items or testing occasions. This framework utilizes variance components to quantify the magnitude of each error source, aiding decision-makers in determining the necessary conditions for dependable scores. G theory distinguishes between generalizability (G) studies, which identify potential error sources, and decision (D) studies, which use G study information to optimize measurement designs for specific applications. A key aspect is differentiating between relative decisions, focused on ranking individuals, and absolute decisions, focused on an individual's level of performance. G theory ultimately provides a generalizability coefficient, akin to a reliability coefficient, indicating the accuracy of generalizing from observed scores to a person's average score across a defined universe of admissible observations.

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Brennan, R. L. (1992). Generalizability Theory.Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice,11(4), 27–34.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3992.1992.tb00260.x

The primary source presents generalizability theory as a framework and methodology for dissecting error sources in measurement procedures, building upon classical test theory and ANOVA. It introduces concepts such as universes of admissible observations, G studies, universes of generalization, and D studies to assess writing proficiency. The document details how to estimate variance components and design efficient measurement procedures, differentiating between absolute and relative error variances. It further explores different study designs and universes of generalization, discussing the implications for reliability and error variance. Additionally, it notes the TOEFL program's award for doctoral research in second/foreign language testing, promoting scholarly contributions to the field. The document also offers references for those who are interested in the measurement of education.

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Rinaldo, R., & Guhin, J. (2022). How and Why Interviews Work: Ethnographic Interviews and Meso-level Public Culture. Sociological Methods & Research, 51(1), 34–67.

Rinaldo and Guhin's article explores the use of ethnographic interviews in sociological research. They argue that these interviews are crucial for understanding the interplay between different modes of culture: declarative, nondeclarative, and public. The authors propose dividing Lizardo's concept of public culture into meso- and macro-levels to better differentiate between interview types. They suggest that ethnographic interviews, conducted within specific social locations, uniquely access meso-level public culture and its interactions with other cultural modes. By analyzing existing studies and Guhin's own fieldwork, the article demonstrates the value of ethnographic interviews in understanding complex cultural dynamics within specific contexts, such as schools. The article also offers practical guidance for researchers aiming to leverage interviews within broader ethnographic projects.

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Jiménez, T. R., & Orozco, M. (2021). Prompts, Not Questions: Four Techniques for Crafting Better Interview Protocols. Qualitative Sociology, 44(4), 507-528.

Jiménez and Orozco's work focuses on enhancing the quality of data gathered through in-depth interviews by refining interview protocols. They argue for the use of prompts rather than questions to encourage richer, more respondent-driven narratives that capture the salience of experiences, the structure of normalcy, perceptions of cause and effect, and views on sensitive topics. The authors propose four specific prompt formats: grand-tour prompts, counterfactual prompts, comparing states prompts and no-limits prompts. These techniques aim to reduce researcher bias and encourage uncensored responses by making respondents feel like experts and minimizing their fear of social isolation. The authors demonstrate the effectiveness of these prompts, providing illustrative examples from various sociological research projects and highlighting how these techniques are more likely to reveal unexpected insights. Ultimately, they advocate for a shift in thinking about interview protocols, emphasizing flexibility and respondent-led exploration of relevant topics.

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Small, M. L., & Calarco, J. M. (2022). Qualitative Literacy: A Guide to Evaluating Ethnographic and Interview Research. University of California Press. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/harvard-ebooks/detail.action?docID=7026737

This excerpt from a qualitative literacy guide emphasizes the crucial role of researcher self-awareness in ethnographic fieldwork. The authors argue that a researcher's identity significantly impacts data collection, influencing access to participants, the information disclosed, and the interpretation of findings. They illustrate how researchers' backgrounds, appearances, and behaviours shape interactions, potentially leading to biased or incomplete data if not carefully considered. The text provides numerous examples of how self-aware researchers proactively address these potential biases in their methodologies and reporting, ultimately producing more reliable and accurate results. Failing to acknowledge these effects compromises research integrity, highlighting the importance of reflexivity in qualitative research.

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Luttrell, W. (Ed.). (2010). Qualitative educational research: Readings in reflexive methodology and transformative practice. Routledge.

This excerpt from a qualitative literacy guide emphasizes the crucial role of researcher self-awareness in ethnographic fieldwork. The authors argue that a researcher's identity significantly impacts data collection, influencing access to participants, the information disclosed, and the interpretation of findings. They illustrate how researchers' backgrounds, appearances, and behaviours shape interactions, potentially leading to biased or incomplete data if not carefully considered. The text provides numerous examples of how self-aware researchers proactively address these potential biases in their methodologies and reporting, ultimately producing more reliable and accurate results. Failing to acknowledge these effects compromises research integrity, highlighting the importance of reflexivity in qualitative research.

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Paris, D., Winn, M. T., Tuck, E., & Yang, K. W. (2014). R-Words: Refusing Research. In Humanizing Research: Decolonizing Qualitative Inquiry with Youth and Communities (pp. 223–248). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781544329611

This 2014 essay, "R-Words: Refusing Research," critiques the ethical implications of social science research, particularly its problematic engagement with marginalized communities. The authors argue that much research focuses on documenting trauma and pain, perpetuating harmful stereotypes and failing to respect the knowledge and desires of the researched. They propose "refusal" as a method to challenge this power dynamic, advocating for research practices that prioritize the sovereignty and agency of communities rather than merely extracting their stories for academic gain. Three axioms—the subaltern’s limited voice, the academy’s undeserved knowledge, and the inadequacy of research as intervention—underpin their call for a more ethical and humanizing approach. The essay uses examples from art and literature to illustrate its points and proposes that refusal, rather than being purely negative, is a creative and generative act.

Ackerman, T. A., Bandalos, D. L., Briggs, D. C., Everson, H. T., Ho, A. D., Lottridge, S. M., Madison, M. J., Sinharay, S., Rodriguez, M. C., Russell, M., Von Davier, A. A., & Wind, S. A. (2024). Foundational Competencies in Educational Measurement. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 43(3), 7–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12581

This article from Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice proposes a framework for foundational competencies in educational measurement, developed by a National Council on Measurement in Education task force. The framework outlines three core competency domains—Communication and Collaboration, Technical, Statistical, and Computational, and Educational Measurement—with the latter domain further divided into five subdomains. The authors argue that these competencies are crucial for professionals, and they suggest ways to integrate them into educational measurement programs. The framework aims to improve training by providing a consensus-based structure for curriculum development. Finally, the authors explore how these competencies manifest in various educational measurement careers and evolve throughout a professional's career.

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Koretz, D. (2009). Measuring Up: What Educational Testing Really Tells Us. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1503gxj

This excerpt from Daniel Koretz's Measuring Up explains the fundamental principles of educational achievement testing, using the analogy of a political poll to illustrate key concepts. The core idea is the "sampling principle," highlighting that tests measure only a small sample of a student's overall knowledge ("the domain"). The text discusses the importance of careful sampling, standardization, item difficulty ("discrimination"), and reliability in ensuring that test scores accurately reflect students' abilities. Finally, it addresses the issue of score inflation, caused by test preparation focusing on specific tested material rather than the broader domain.

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Ho, A. D. (2024). Measurement Must Be Qualitative, then Quantitative, then Qualitative Again. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 43(4), 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12662

This article from Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice synthesizes twelve commentaries by past presidents of the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME) on the past, present, and future of educational measurement. The author, Andrew Ho, frames the commentaries using a three-stage model of measurement—qualitative, quantitative, then qualitative again—highlighting the importance of both qualitative and quantitative competencies. Two recurring themes emerge: the need for personalized assessments and a heightened appreciation for the qualitative aspects of measurement, including its historical and political context. Ho uses this framework to categorize and discuss each commentary, offering his own perspectives and suggestions for future directions in the field. The overall goal is to use the commentaries to advance the NCME's mission of benefiting society through educational measurement.

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Gerace, A., Day, A., Casey, S., & Mohr, P. (2013). An Exploratory Investigation of the Process of Perspective Taking in Interpersonal Situations. Journal of Relationships Research, 4, e6. https://doi.org/10.1017/jrr.2013.6

This 2013 article from the Journal of Relationships Research explores the process of perspective-taking in interpersonal situations. Researchers conducted interviews with twelve participants, prompting them to recall instances where they actively attempted to understand another person's viewpoint. The study identified strategies participants used, including drawing on personal information, self-reflection (imagining themselves in the other's position), past experiences, and general knowledge. Analysis revealed that perspective-taking often occurred in emotionally charged situations, and involved a dynamic shift between focusing on one's own perspective and that of the other. The findings contribute to existing models of empathy, highlighting the complexities and challenges of understanding others.

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