This episode wades into the heart of a profound and often contentious debate about the state of humanity, juxtaposing our pervasive sense of modern decline with the startling, data-driven optimism of thinkers like Steven Pinker. Pinker, in his book "The Better Angels of Our Nature," presents a compelling and meticulously researched case that, contrary to our intuition, violence has been in a long and dramatic decline over the course of human history. From the brutal realities of ancient tribal warfare to the relative peace of the modern era, the data suggests that we are, in fact, living in the most peaceful time our species has ever known. This challenges us to reconcile our often-gloomy perceptions with a more hopeful, evidence-based narrative of human progress. The episode explores the various historical forces that Pinker identifies as the "better angels" that have guided this decline in violence: the rise of centralized states with a monopoly on force, the civilizing influence of commerce, the expansion of reason and empathy, and the overall "civilizing process" that has led to greater self-control and a lower tolerance for cruelty. This is not a naive argument that human nature has fundamentally changed, but rather that our social, political, and intellectual institutions have evolved in ways that increasingly favor our more cooperative and compassionate impulses. This perspective reframes human history not as a story of inevitable decay, but as a long, often halting, but ultimately positive journey toward a more humane world. However, the episode does not shy away from the profound critiques of this optimistic view. The horrors of the 20th century, the ongoing realities of war and inequality, and the existential threat of climate change all serve as powerful counterpoints to a simple story of linear progress. By placing Pinker's data alongside the searing moral critiques of writers like James Baldwin and the ecological warnings of thinkers like Jason Hickel, the episode fosters a more nuanced and complex understanding. It suggests that while we can celebrate the real gains we have made, we must also remain vigilant, recognizing that progress is not inevitable and that the work of building a more just, peaceful, and sustainable world requires our constant and conscious effort.