Happy new year, friends, and welcome to our first episode of 2025! We are continuing Season Two with Ibn Khaldun, a medieval historian who was fascinated by the way societies function. Telling us his story is Professor Gabriel Martinez-Gros, one of France’s most renowned experts of Islam. The episode explores Ibn Khaldun’s life and the context in which he wrote. It also examines the cyclical nature of history he proposed, which goes something like this. States are built around a violent minority that subdues the majority sedentary population. Eventually these violent groups, who in Ibn Khaldoun’s time were nomads or Bedouin, soften and become more and more like the sedentary population they rule. In other words, these wolves become like the sheep they govern – so to maintain control of the state, they have to call on new wolves to help them. These new violent groups first support, and then supplant, the old elite. The discussion highlights how Ibn Khaldun’s insights into the complicated relationship between the authorities and society remain pertinent today, especially in light of contemporary challenges.