Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's Monadology presents a metaphysical system built upon the concept of monads: simple, indivisible substances constituting the universe. These monads possess perception and appetition, internally driven and interacting only ideally through God's pre-established harmony. Leibniz argues for God's existence using the principle of sufficient reason, explaining the universe's order and contingent truths. Finally, he describes a "City of God," a moral realm harmonising with the physical, where the actions of rational souls, reflecting God's nature, find ultimate reward or punishment.

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